A Reflection on India’s Transition through Political, Developmental and Environmental Policies
Abstract
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, in his “The Discovery of India” calls India as “an ancient palimpsest on which layer upon layer of thought and reverie had been inscribed, and yet no succeeding layer had completely hidden or erased what had been written previously”.(Nehru,1956). This holds true even today, in 2018, even after 71 years of Independence. Today, India is one of the world’s fastest growing economy. The transition from a drought and famine ridden poor country, to one of the world’s fastest growing economy has been a tough one. Yet, even though India is transiting towards modernity, it has managed to maintain its antiquities in its core. An article published in India carbon outlook in 2011 talks about urbanization in developing countries particularly in reference to India (http://www.india.carbon-outlook.com/content/eco-cities-india). Rapid urbanization paves way for more employment opportunities but on the other hand, urbanization if uncontrolled, can lead to a variety of challenges and ecological hazards. Many developing countries like India now face the challenge of making their cities both ecological and economically sustainable. There are some critical challenges for the Indian cities in future. The cities in future need to continue to tackle and channelize the aspects responsible for poverty and growth offered by urbanization and at the same time, they need to mitigate the negative impacts of urbanization so that the cities can cope up with the future scale of urbanization, considering their own limitations and capacities. Cities are facing a decay, due to promulgating haphazard urbanization and lack of implementation of development control guidelines. This paper aims to analyze India’s development mostly after independence in 1947, and environmental policies, the technological innovations, the transfer of India’s Environmental burden and how various regimes, democratic or authoritarian, have played a major role in transforming India’s environment and economy. An in-depth of analysis of history is essential for future planning and development, and this paper is intended towards analyzing the environmental policies and developmental policies of India in the past, and how political and economic scenarios have impacted India’s environment.
- Political Integration of India: The political integration of India began after Indian Independence from the British in 1947. At the time of Indian Independence in 1947, India was broadly divided into two territories, one under the suzerainty of the British crown, with control over their internal affairs remaining in the hands of their hereditary rulers (rulers of the princely states which were allies of the British) and one under direct British rule. In addition, there were French and Portuguese territories. The political integration of these princely states and territories (Figure 1) became an objective of the Indian National Congress, and the Government of India pursued this over next decade. Thus, all the princely states were integrated into the Democratic Republic of India, and finally, in 1971, all the princely titles were abolished by an amendment in the constitution, and the Privy Purse was abolished. The Privy Purse was a payment made to the ruling families of erstwhile princely states as part of their agreements to integrate with India in 1947. Under the 26th Amendment in 1971, all the allowances and privileges from the Central Government to the Royal families were discontinued.
2. Development Policy
2.1 Political, Social & Economic Background of Independent India: When the British handed over a free India, it was an economy plagued by imbalances and distortions, reeking of stagnation and on the verge of bankruptcy. The colonial pattern of foreign trade and organized loot of the British left India in poverty. Independent India was faced with problems which were magnanimous. There were famines, induced droughts, poverty and unemployment. The agriculture sector had to be transformed, and the industrial sector had to be reformed for a strong economy. The partition of India further aggravated these problems and there was a heavy inflow of refugees from Pakistan, millions of these refugees were stranded and forced to live in inhumane conditions before they were formally granted livable spaces and job opportunities.
The economy was much behind as compared to the other counterparts in the world. So, economic transition became the first priority. These compelling stakeholders and factors led to the formulation of a number of policies for quick economic development and growth. Even after India became independent, most of the industries were controlled by the British Capital to a certain extent, as shown in Table 1.
The service industries were also dominated by the British, on the eve of the transfer of power from the British to Indian Government, 85% of inland steamer services and overseas shipping were still under British control. As a whole, nearly one half of the net assets belonging to the organized sectors of banking, trade and mining were controlled by foreigners in 1953.
However, the nature and scope of foreign capital decreased gradually over time.
Table 1 Share of Foreign Capital in Indian Industries during 1949–50
2.2 Development Plans and beginning of Planning in India: The Early efforts towards contemporary Urban Planning in India began when Sir Patrick Geddes, a Scottish sociologist, geographer, philanthropist and pioneering town planner, was invited to India by Lord Pentland(The then Governor of Madras Province), and subsequently, a meeting with Indian National Congress(INC) was scheduled. Between 1915 and 1919 Geddes wrote a series of “exhaustive town planning reports” on at least eighteen Indian cities, a selection of which has been collected together in Jacqueline Tyrwhitt’s Patrick Geddes in India (1947).
His principles for Bombay Town Planning demonstrated his views on the interrelationship between spatial form and social processes, this led to the formation of the Bombay Town Planning Act (1915), the first Town Planning act of India.
The Nehru Government introduced the concept of Five Year Development Plans in 1951. During this time, India was struggling with the imbalances caused by World War II and Partition of India. There was a heavy inflow of refugees from Pakistan and there was an immediate need to accommodate more people. Five Year Plans (FYPs) are integrated and centralized national economic programs. Joseph Stalin implemented the first FYP in the Soviet Union in 1920s. These FYPs were adopted by most communist states and several capitalist countries during the course of time. The first FYP was launched in India in 1951 and was focused on handling the aftermath of Partition and a crippling economy. Priority was given to projects combining power generation and irrigation. The Second FYP (1956–60) stressed on public sector industries and economic infrastructure. The Third FYP (1961–65) was intended at a rise in national and per capita income while improving the industrial base and the agricultural neglect of the previous plan was questioned. A self-sufficiency in the food grains was targeted in the mid-1960s.
After the 3rd FYP, there was a break because of a major India Pakistan Conflict, followed by successive years of drought and devaluation of the Indian Rupee. Therefore, for the years between 1966 and 1969, three Annual Plans were devised. The 4th FYP was started in 1969. The 8th Plan could not be launched in 1990 due to the unstable political situation, and the years 1900–92 were again treated as Annual Plans. All these FYPs have subsequently contributed to the rapid increase in India’s economy and GDP as compared to the colonial period as shown in Figure 2.
This rapid increase is particularly evident during 1900s when there was an Economic Liberalization. The economic liberalization initiated in 1991, was a transformation of India’s Economic Policies, targeting them towards making the economy more market and service oriented and increasing foreign and private investment. Most prominent changes included a reduction in import tariffs, taxes and a financially substantial foreign investment. While the Liberalization contributed to high economic growth, it also lead to an increased poverty, inequality and economic degradation, with a negative impact on Agriculture, which was one of the most prominent financial sectors of India. (Figure 3)
“The post-reform period shows the gradual decline in the agriculture sector’s contribution to the Indian economy. India’s traditional occupation, agriculture now contributes only about 15% to the GDP, down from 29 percent in 1991. The services sector has taken the lead role in propelling the economy at the global stage. The IT sector has been the torchbearer of the service sector in India.”(First Post, 2018). Currently, it contributes around 53 percent to the national economy. In the meanwhile, the industrial sector has undergone marginal growth in the last 25 years (First Post, 2018).
2.3 Hierarchy and Types of Plans in India: Indian hierarchy of Planning is quite complex and is governed by various National and Local Authorities at various levels. There are a number of plans for directing development in Urban and Rural areas. The levels at which they operate is different and the nature of details also varies. There are Master Plans to develop the city as a combined unit and maintain a balance of allocation of services. The Master Plan divides the city into several zones which are governed by Zonal Development Plans which conform to the land use divisions as stated in the Master Plans. This is followed by Local Area Plans, Sector Plans and Neighborhood Plans. A summary of these plans is given in Table 2. There are some major authorities controlling the spatial policy which provide a model framework for the execution of these plans as shown in Table 3. Each policy area is controlled by a specific authority.
2.4 Administrative Structure in India: The Indian Constitution, provides three tiers of administrative levels: The Union, the State, and the Local Governments (Rural and Urban). The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment act has created the third tier of local governance. The Union Government is the authority of jurisdiction on national matters such as communications, economy, foreign relations, defense and adequate infrastructure. The State Government is directly elected by the people and has its own jurisdiction. The responsibilities of the State Government includes public safety and infrastructure for public. The Jurisdiction of rural Government includes agricultural extension, rural housing and poverty alleviation programs, while jurisdiction of urban governments includes Urban Planning and regulation of land use. The administrative hierarchy, divisions and power separation is summarized in Figures 4 & 5.
3. Environmental Policy
3.1 History of Environmental Policies in India: In Article 48 of the Directive Principles of State Policy, it is stated that every state shall endeavor to protect and improve the environment and safeguard the forests and wildlife. Article 51-A further emphasizes upon the duties of citizens of India to protect and improve the natural environment. India is one of the members of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) treaty. Prior to the CBD, India had different laws for Environmental Protection. Indian Wildlife Protection Act of 1972 protected India’s biodiversity. The 1988 National Forest Policy stressed on conservation as one of the principles. Subsequently, the Environment Act 1986 was passed by the Government for control of biodiversity.
Since 1980s, the Supreme Court of India has been very active in India’s environmental issues. The Supreme Court has been engaged in introducing and interpreting new changes in environmental laws. The court has devised new principles, environmental laws, institutional framework, and conferred additional powers on existing authorities through judgments and directions. The administrative framework for Environment Protection in India is summarized in Figure 7.
3.2 Environmental Issues in India: According to a recent report by The Times of India, India is one of the worst performers in Global Environmental Index. “India is among the bottom five countries on the Environmental Performance Index 2018, plummeting 36 points from 141 in 2016, according to a biennial report by Yale and Columbia Universities along with the World Economic Forum. While India is at the bottom of the list in the environmental health category, it ranks 178 out of 180 as far as air quality is concerned.”(India ranks 177 out of 180 in Environmental Performance Index, Times of India, 2018).
There are numerous environmental problems in India, Air Pollution, Water Pollution, garbage and pollution of the environment are major challenges for India. According to World Bank environment assessment studies, India has made a commendable progress in addressing these issues, but the results are yet to be seen. Pollution remains a major challenge for India. Figure 6 shows a comparative analysis in pollution statistics between 1998 and 2014, with an evident increase in particulate matter in major Indian Cities. The pollution is one of the major reasons for increasing health hazards. Presently, India is trying to introduce new policies for tackling and monitoring Pollution in major metropolitans.
3.3 Transfer of Environmental Burden: The Solid waste policy in India species and outlines the duties for waste management for citizens and cities of India. This policy was introduced in September 2000, for Class 1 cities of India. It made the responsible statutory bodies to comply with the Report generated by Committee for Solid Waste Management. Today, the Environmental Burden on India is at its peak. India is one of the places, where most garbage is disposed in landfills, thereby contaminating the ground with hazardous and toxic materials like plastics and chemicals. Although, the waste management policies stress on daily doorstep collection of “wet” wastes for composting, it is rarely seen in practice. Composting is proposed as a solution to India’s soil needs, for preventing loss of fertility due to improper use of chemical fertilizers. On the other hand, there is a problem of increasing electronic waste as well.
The increase in waste generation is seen primarily as a consequence of economic development, resulting in various subordinate legislations for the regulation of waste. With rapid urbanization, the country is facing a waste management challenge. “Over 377 million urban people live in 7,935 towns and cities and generate 62 million tonnes of municipal solid waste per annum. Only 43 million tonnes (MT) of the waste is collected, 11.9 MT is treated and 31 MT is dumped in landfill sites” (Down to Earth, 2017). Almost all municipal authorities dispose their waste at a dumpyard within or in the outskirts of the city haphazardly. India will face a land shortage crisis if this is not rectified immediately. As per experts, India follows a flawed system of waste management. While the policies are in place, their implementation needs to be monitored carefully.
4. Democratic Regime of India and influence of Politics on Environment: India is the biggest democracy in the world, with a population of over 1 billion. The Preamble to the Indian constitution defines India as a sovereign socialist, secular, democratic, republic with a parliamentary system of government. India became a republic on 26th January, 1950. “India became a democratic republic infused with the spirit of justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. The Preamble, the Directive Principles of State policy and the Fundamental Rights reflect the Indian ideology as well as the caste, creed, religion, property, or sex have the right to cast their vote” (Indif.com). The constitution grants equal rights to all the citizens of India.
Whether or not the Democratic Regime has a direct and influential impact on India’s environmental laws is yet to be properly evaluated, given that India faces greater challenges than any other Asian country because of its diverse nature, politically, economically and socially. It is not easy to tackle the magnitude of challenges which India is currently facing. The Government hierarchy of India is very complex which makes it difficult to implement plans in a short span of time. The hierarchy in the Governance structure attributes to the delay in plan formulation and implementation as the Government is restructured every 5 years. Some major incidents in the past have been eye-openers for the Indian Government to modify its environmental laws, for example, The Bhopal Gas Tragedy of 1984 saw an immediate rise in activism from local groups as well as nationwide institutions. This led to the formation of Environment Protection Act of 1986. But even after this, its current development strategy is increasingly disputed along lines of ecological Considerations (Hörig, 1995). India’s transition to sustainability still has a long way to go as compared to the western counterparts.
Due to various national trends, there has been a tremendous growth in citizen’s groups that campaign for environmental protection and improvement. There are numerous Non-Government Organizations (NGOs) and community initiatives working towards environmental cause actively. India’s democratic rights have given the liberty to the citizens to raise a voice against environmental hazards and the inefficiency of Government to tackle them.
5. Technological Innovations and Diffusions in India: India is constantly experimenting with new scientific innovations, sustainable policies and technical infrastructure. Probably the first step towards a sustainable transition was the Experimental city of Auroville, established near Pondicherry in India in 1960s. It was an experiment involving effective reforestation, and creating a man-made forest on a barren land. Today, Auroville is a hub of Architectural sustainable practices, and provides employment to a huge number of people in its sub-region. Currently, India is constantly working on its Smart cities mission. Smart Cities Mission, sometimes referred to as Smart City Mission, is an urban renewal and retrofitting program by the Government of India with the mission to develop 100 cities across the country making them citizen friendly and sustainable. Smart Cities Mission envisions developing an area within 100 cities in the country as model areas based on an area development plan. Apart from this, there are various similar projects which were launched such as JNNURM, the Jawahar Lal Nehru Urban Renewal Mission, which focuses on renewal of the old historic core of Indian cities by formulation of a City Development Plan (CDPs).
Apart from this, India is actively working on its Nuclear power projects which is the 5th largest source of energy in India. As of March 2018, India has 22 nuclear reactors in operation in 7 nuclear power plants, having a total installed capacity of 6,780 MW. India is making advances in thorium based fuels, to develop and design a prototype for an atomic reactor. This is a key part of India’s three stage nuclear power program. The energy policy of India is defined by the country’s expanding energy deficit and focus on development of alternative energy sources, particularly solar, wind and nuclear energy. India ranked 81st position in overall energy self-sufficiency at 66% in 2014.
6. Reflection on India’s transition: Today, India is the largest Democracy and one of the World’s emerging destinations for Foreign Capital Investment. This has made India one of the fastest growing economies of the world. While India is rapidly progressing on the economic front, there are some immediate underlying issues which need to be immediately addressed. These issues pertain to haphazard urbanization, over-population, environmental neglect and pollution amongst various other issues of concern. While the democratic regime in India has been a success to a large extent, the difficulty and the complexity in plan implementation has effected India negatively. In a culturally diverse nation, there are problems of caste, creed, economic status and religious politics. Although, the democracy gives the citizen of India a free right to criticize the government, there are a number of social issues to be evaluated. India is crippling between an urge to create holistic environment for its citizens while battling with corruption, religious politics and transition to sustainable development.
India’s role in the International Climatic Negotiations like the Kyoto Protocol, has not been very satisfactory till date. So far, India’s stance on climate change has blended genuine concern for the issue with a resolute refusal to consider limiting its own emissions. On the one hand, the Government of India has long expressed its concern over the effects of climate change. It began formulating policies to support renewable energy in its 2008 National Climate Change Action Plan. India’s current Prime Minister, Narendra Modi, has been outspoken in calling attention to the challenge of climate change (Brookings, 2014).
Perhaps, India needs to reflect on its democratic and environmental policies once more and bring an effective step towards this transitional period.
List of Figures
Figure 1 British Indian Empire in The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909. British India is shaded pink, the princely states yellow. Source: Wikipedia.
Figure 2 Change in per capita GDP of India, 1820–2015. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 1990 International Geary-Khamis dollars,Source: Tables of Prof. Angus Maddison (2010)
Figure 3 Share of agriculture, industry and services in GDP, Source: First Post, 9th June, 2018.
Figure 4 Administrative Hierarchy according to Indian Constitution, Source: Local Government in India, Council of Local Authorities for International Relations, 2007.
Figure 5 Administrative divisions and power separation in Indian Government, Source: http://pramodpranjan.blogspot.com/2016/05/administrative-structure-of-india_29.html
Figure 6 Administrative framework for Environment Protection in India, Source: https://sites.google.com/site/drrajdeepdeb/ltq-unit-5.
Figure 7 PM 2.5 Pollution in India, Source: Urban Emissions, 2017.
List of Tables
Table 1 Share of Foreign Capital in Indian Industries during 1949–50.
Table 2 Planning System Framework, Source: URDPFI Guidelines, 2014, Ministry of Urban Development
Table 3 Planning System Framework, Source: URDPFI Guidelines, 2014, Ministry of Urban Development
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